Review on two-dimensional material-based field-effect transistor biosensors: accomplishments, mechanisms, and perspectives.

Field-effect transistor (FET) is regarded as the most promising candidate for the next-generation biosensor, benefiting from the advantages of label-free, easy operation, low cost, easy integration, and direct detection of biomarkers in liquid environments. With the burgeoning advances in nanotechnology and biotechnology, researchers are trying to improve the sensitivity of FET biosensors and broaden their application scenarios from multiple strategies. In order to enable researchers to understand and apply FET biosensors deeply, focusing on the multidisciplinary technical details, the iteration and evolution of FET biosensors are reviewed from exploring the sensing mechanism in detecting biomolecules (research direction 1), the response signal type (research direction 2), the sensing performance optimization (research direction 3), and the integration strategy (research direction 4). Aiming at each research direction, forward perspectives and dialectical evaluations are summarized to enlighten rewarding investigations.

Recent development of nanotechnology-empowered antigen assay methods for the control of infectious diseases.

The global spread of air-borne diseases, such as Covid-19 caused by the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), has significantly impacted public health and economic development worldwide. Accurate and rapid detection of pathogens is the key to controlling the spread of infection and reducing severe illness and death. Compared to nucleic acid testing, rapid antigen testing for pathogen proteins shows unique advantages such as convenience, speed, and cost-effectiveness, but its sensitivity is limited. Here, we review the latest progress in the development of immunological assay methods for infectious diseases. We summarize the principles, performance, advantages and limitations of several representative methods. We highlight recent efforts in utilizing nanotechnology to engineer biosensing interfaces, offering enhanced sensitivity while maintaining convenience for on-site diagnosis. Finally, we provide an outlook on the development of this field.

The Role of Advanced Technologies against COVID-19: Prevention, Detection, and Treatments.

Concurrent with the global outbreak of COVID-19, the race began among scientists to generate effective therapeutics for the treatment of COVID-19. In this regard, advanced technology such as nanotechnology, cell-based therapies, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, nerve stimulation and artificial intelligence (AI) are attractive because they can offer new solutions for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. Nanotechnology can design rapid and specific tests with high sensitivity for detecting infection and synthases new drugs and vaccines based on nanomaterials to directly deliver the intended antiviral agent to the desired site in the body and also provide new surfaces that do not allow virus adhesion. Mesenchymal stem cells and exosomes secreted from them apply in regenerative medicine and regulate inflammatory responses. Cell therapy and tissue engineering are combined to repair or substitute damaged tissues or cells. Tissue engineering using biomaterials, cells, and signaling molecules can develop new therapeutic and diagnostic platforms and help scientists fight viral diseases. Nerve stimulation technology can augment body's natural ability to modulate the inflammatory response and inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines and consequently suppress cytokine storm. People can access free online health counseling services through AI and it helps very fast for screening and diagnosis of COVID-19 patients. This study is aimed first to give brief information about COVID-19 and the epidemiology of the disease. After that, we highlight important developments in the field of advanced technologies relevant to the prevention, detection, and treatment of the current pandemic.

Optimizing the synthesis of yeast Beta-glucan via response surface methodology for nanotechnology application.

BACKGROUND: The production of biopolymers from waste resources is a growing trend, especially in high-population countries like Egypt. Beta-glucan (ß-glucan) belongs to natural polysaccharides that are derived from plant and microbial origins. In this study, following increasing demands for ß-glucan owing to its bioactive properties, a statistical model to enhance microbial ß-glucan production was evaluated for its usefulness to the food and pharmaceutical industries. In addition, a trial to convert ß-glucan polymer to nanostructure form was done to increase its bioactivity. RESULTS: Ingredients of low-cost media based on agro-industrial wastes were described using Plackett-Burman and central composite design of response surface methodology for optimizing yeast ß-glucan. Minerals and vitamin concentrations significantly influenced ß-glucan yield for Kluyveromyces lactis and nitrogen and phosphate sources for Meyerozyma guilliermondii. The maximum predicted yields of ß-glucan recovered from K. lactis and M. guilliermondii after optimizing the medium ingredients were 407 and 1188 mg/100 ml; respectively. For the first time, yeast ß-glucan nanoparticles (ßGN) were synthesized from the ß-glucan polymer using N-dimethylformamide as a stabilizer and characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, transmission electron microscope (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The average size of ßGN was about 300 nm as determined by DLS. The quantitative variation of functional groups between ß-glucan polymer and ßGN was evaluated by FT-IR for explaining the difference in their biological activity against Normal Homo sapiens-Hela contaminant and Hepatic cancer cell lines. CONCLUSIONS: Enriching the low-cost media based on agro-industrial wastes with nutritional ingredients improves the yield of yeast ß-glucan. The present study succeeds to form ß-glucan nanoparticles by a simple method.

Lysosomal nanotoxicity: Impact of nanomedicines on lysosomal function.

Although several nanomedicines got clinical approval over the past two decades, the clinical translation rate is relatively small so far. There are many post-surveillance withdrawals of nanomedicines caused by various safety issues. For successful clinical advancement of nanotechnology, it is of unmet need to realize cellular and molecular foundation of nanotoxicity. Current data suggest that lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanoparticles is emerging as the most common intracellular trigger of nanotoxicity. This review analyzes prospect mechanisms of lysosomal dysfunction-mediated toxicity induced by nanoparticles. We summarized and critically assessed adverse drug reactions of current clinically approved nanomedicines. Importantly, we show that physicochemical properties have great impact on nanoparticles interaction with cells, excretion route and kinetics, and subsequently on toxicity. We analyzed literature on adverse reactions of current nanomedicines and hypothesized that adverse reactions might be linked with lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanomedicines. Finally, from our analysis it becomes clear that it is unjustifiable to generalize safety and toxicity of nanoparticles, since different particles possess distinct toxicological properties. We propose that the biological mechanism of the disease progression and treatment should be central in the optimization of nanoparticle design.

Nanotechnologies for the Diagnosis and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 and Its Variants.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, has caused well over 750 million infections and 6.8 million deaths. Rapid diagnosis and isolation of infected patients are the primary aims of the concerned authorities to minimize the casualties. The endeavor to mitigate the pandemic has been impeded by the emergence of newly identified genomic variants of SARS-CoV-2. Some of these variants are considered as serious threats because of their higher transmissibility and potential immune evasion, leading to reduced vaccine efficiency. Nanotechnology can play an important role in advancing both diagnosis and therapy of COVID-19. In this review, nanotechnology-based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants are introduced. The biological features and functions of the virus, the mechanism of infection, and currently used approaches for diagnosis, vaccination, and therapy are discussed. Then, nanomaterial-based nucleic acid- and antigen-targeting diagnostic methods and viral activity suppression approaches that have a strong potential to advance both diagnostics and therapeutics toward control and containment of the COVID-19 pandemic are focused upon.

Recent development of surface-enhanced Raman scattering for biosensing.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) technology, as a powerful tool to identify molecular species by collecting molecular spectral signals at the single-molecule level, has achieved substantial progresses in the fields of environmental science, medical diagnosis, food safety, and biological analysis. As deepening research is delved into SERS sensing, more and more high-performance or multifunctional SERS substrate materials emerge, which are expected to push Raman sensing into more application fields. Especially in the field of biological analysis, intrinsic and extrinsic SERS sensing schemes have been widely used and explored due to their fast, sensitive and reliable advantages. Herein, recent developments of SERS substrates and their applications in biomolecular detection (SARS-CoV-2 virus, tumor etc.), biological imaging and pesticide detection are summarized. The SERS concepts (including its basic theory and sensing mechanism) and the important strategies (extending from nanomaterials with tunable shapes and nanostructures to surface bio-functionalization by modifying affinity groups or specific biomolecules) for improving SERS biosensing performance are comprehensively discussed. For data analysis and identification, the applications of machine learning methods and software acquisition sources in SERS biosensing and diagnosing are discussed in detail. In conclusion, the challenges and perspectives of SERS biosensing in the future are presented.

Application of nanotechnology in air purifiers as a viable approach to protect against Corona virus.

The outbreak of COVID-19 disease, the cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome, is considered a worldwide public health concern. Although studies indicated that the virus could spread through respiratory particles or droplets in close contact, current research have revealed that the virus stays viable in aerosols for several hours. Numerous investigations have highlighted the protective role of air purifiers in the management of COVID-19 transmission, however, there are still some doubts regarding the efficiency and safety of these technologies. According to those observations, using a proper ventilation system can extensively decrease the spread of COVID-19. However, most of those strategies are currently in the experimental stages. This review aimed at summarising the safety and effectiveness of the recent approaches in this field including using nanofibres that prevent the spread of airborne viruses like SARS-CoV-2. Here, the efficacy of controlling COVID-19 by means of combining multiple strategies is comprehensively discussed.

Plasmonic Sensors: A New Frontier in Nanotechnology.

Plasmonics is the study of surface plasmons formed by the interaction of incident light with electrons to form a surface-bound electromagnetic wave [...].

Chemistry and biology of ferritin.

Iron is an essential element required by cells and has been described as a key player in ferroptosis. Ferritin operates as a fundamental iron storage protein in cells forming multimeric assemblies with crystalline iron cores. We discuss the latest findings on ferritin structure and activity and its link to cell metabolism and ferroptosis. The chemistry of iron, including its oxidation states, is important for its biological functions, its reactivity, and the biology of ferritin. Ferritin can be localized in different cellular compartments and secreted by cells with a variety of functions depending on its spatial context. Here, we discuss how cellular ferritin localization is tightly linked to its function in a tissue-specific manner, and how impairment of iron homeostasis is implicated in diseases, including cancer and coronavirus disease 2019. Ferritin is a potential biomarker and we discuss latest research where it has been employed for imaging purposes and drug delivery.

Advances in Facemasks during the COVID-19 Pandemic Era.

The outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has transformed the daily lifestyles of people worldwide. COVID-19 was characterized as a pandemic owing to its global spread, and technologies based on engineered materials that help to reduce the spread of infections have been reported. Nanotechnology present in materials with enhanced physicochemical properties and versatile chemical functionalization offer numerous ways to combat the disease. Facemasks are a reliable preventive measure, although they are not 100% effective against viral infections. Nonwoven materials, which are the key components of masks, act as barriers to the virus through filtration. However, there is a high chance of cross-infection because the used mask lacks virucidal properties and can become an additional source of infection. The combination of antiviral and filtration properties enhances the durability and reliability of masks, thereby reducing the likelihood of cross-infection. In this review, we focus on masks, from the manufacturing stage to practical applications, and their abilities to combat COVID-19. Herein, we discuss the impacts of masks on the environment, while considering safe industrial production in the future. Furthermore, we discuss available options for future research directions that do not negatively impact the environment.

Single-Molecule Evaluation of the SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein Using Gold Particle-in-a-Frame Nanostructures Enhanced Fluorescent Assay.

Ultrasensitive evaluation of low-abundance analytes, particularly with limits approaching a single molecule, is a key challenge in the design of an assay for profiling severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) antigen. Herein, we report an aptamer claw strategy for directly evaluating the SARS-CoV-2 antigen based on gold particle-in-a-frame nanostructures (Au PIAFs). Au PIAF was used as a metal-enhanced fluorescence material. The assay integrated with a microplate reader achieved a sensitivity of 44 fg·mL-1 in under 3 min and accurately detected the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (N protein) in human saliva samples. When our assay is combined with a single-molecule counting platform, the limit of detection can be as low as 0.84 ag·mL-1. This rapid and ultrasensitive assay holds promise as a tool for screening SARS-CoV-2 and other contagious viruses.

mRNA therapeutics for disease therapy: principles, delivery, and clinical translation.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) has become a key focus in the development of therapeutic agents, showing significant potential in preventing and treating a wide range of diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has accelerated the development of mRNA nucleic therapeutics and attracted significant investment from global biopharmaceutical companies. These therapeutics deliver genetic information into cells without altering the host genome, making them a promising treatment option. However, their clinical applications have been limited by issues such as instability, inefficient in vivo delivery, and low translational efficiency. Recent advances in molecular design and nanotechnology have helped overcome these challenges, and several mRNA formulations have demonstrated promising results in both animal and human testing against infectious diseases and cancer. This review provides an overview of the latest research progress in structural optimization strategies and delivery systems, and discusses key considerations for their future clinical use.

Biomimetic Nanotechnology for SARS-CoV-2 Treatment.

More than 600 million people worldwide have been infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), resulting in the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In particular, new waves of COVID-19 caused by emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants pose new health risks to the global population. Nanotechnology has developed excellent solutions to combat the virus pandemic, such as ACE2-based nanodecoys, nanobodies, nanovaccines, and drug nanocarriers. Lessons learned and strategies developed during this battle against SARS-CoV-2 variants may also serve as inspiration for developing nanotechnology-based strategies to combat other global infectious diseases and their variants in the future.

Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems: a promising noninvasive approach to bioavailability enhancement. Part II: formulation considerations.

INTRODUCTION: Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems (MDDS) are specifically designed to interact and bind to the mucosal layer of the epithelium for localized, prolonged, and/or targeted drug delivery. Over the past 4 decades, several dosage forms have been developed for localized as well as systemic drug delivery at different anatomical sites. AREAS COVERED: The objective of this review is to provide a detailed understanding of the different aspects of MDDS. Part II describes the origin and evolution of MDDS, followed by a discussion of the properties of mucoadhesive polymers. Finally, a synopsis of the different commercial aspects of MDDS, recent advances in the development of MDDS for biologics and COVID-19 as well as future perspectives are provided. EXPERT OPINION: A review of the past reports and recent advances reveal MDDS as highly versatile, biocompatible, and noninvasive drug delivery systems. The rise in the number of approved biologics, the introduction of newer highly efficient thiomers, as well as the recent advances in the field of nanotechnology have led to several excellent applications of MDDS, which are predicted to grow significantly in the future.

Advances and opportunities in nanoimaging agents for the diagnosis of inflammatory lung diseases.

The development of rapid, noninvasive diagnostics to detect lung diseases is a great need after the COVID-2019 outbreak. The nanotechnology-based approach has improved imaging and facilitates the early diagnosis of inflammatory lung diseases. The multifunctional properties of nanoprobes enable better spatial-temporal resolution and a high signal-to-noise ratio in imaging. Targeted nanoimaging agents have been used to bind specific tissues in inflammatory lungs for early-stage diagnosis. However, nanobased imaging approaches for inflammatory lung diseases are still in their infancy. This review provides a solution-focused approach to exploring medical imaging technologies and nanoprobes for the detection of inflammatory lung diseases. Prospects for the development of contrast agents for lung disease detection are also discussed.

Nanotechnology and COVID-19 Convergence: Toward New Planetary Health Interventions Against the Pandemic.

COVID-19 is a systemic disease affecting multiple organ systems and caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Two years into the COVID-19 pandemic and after the introduction of several vaccines, the pandemic continues to evolve in part owing to global inequities in access to preventive and therapeutic measures. We are also witnessing the introduction of antivirals against COVID-19. Against this current background, we review the progress made with nanotechnology-based approaches such as nanoformulations to combat the multiorgan effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection from a systems medicine lens. While nanotechnology has previously been widely utilized in the antiviral research domain, it has not yet received the commensurate interest in the case of COVID-19 pandemic response strategies. Notably, SARS-CoV-2 and nanomaterials are similar in size ranging from 50 to 200 nm. Nanomaterials offer the promise to reduce the side effects of antiviral drugs, codeliver multiple drugs while maintaining stability in the biological milieu, and sustain the release of entrapped drug(s) for a predetermined time period, to name but a few conceivable scenarios, wherein nanotechnology can enable and empower preventive medicine and therapeutic innovations against SARS-CoV-2. We conclude the article by underlining that nanotechnology-based interventions warrant further consideration to enable precision planetary health responses against the COVID-19 pandemic.

Nanotechnology-Enabled Biosensors: A Review of Fundamentals, Design Principles, Materials, and Applications.

Biosensors are modern engineering tools that can be widely used for various technological applications. In the recent past, biosensors have been widely used in a broad application spectrum including industrial process control, the military, environmental monitoring, health care, microbiology, and food quality control. Biosensors are also used specifically for monitoring environmental pollution, detecting toxic elements' presence, the presence of bio-hazardous viruses or bacteria in organic matter, and biomolecule detection in clinical diagnostics. Moreover, deep medical applications such as well-being monitoring, chronic disease treatment, and in vitro medical examination studies such as the screening of infectious diseases for early detection. The scope for expanding the use of biosensors is very high owing to their inherent advantages such as ease of use, scalability, and simple manufacturing process. Biosensor technology is more prevalent as a large-scale, low cost, and enhanced technology in the modern medical field. Integration of nanotechnology with biosensors has shown the development path for the novel sensing mechanisms and biosensors as they enhance the performance and sensing ability of the currently used biosensors. Nanoscale dimensional integration promotes the formulation of biosensors with simple and rapid detection of molecules along with the detection of single biomolecules where they can also be evaluated and analyzed critically. Nanomaterials are used for the manufacturing of nano-biosensors and the nanomaterials commonly used include nanoparticles, nanowires, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nanorods, and quantum dots (QDs). Nanomaterials possess various advantages such as color tunability, high detection sensitivity, a large surface area, high carrier capacity, high stability, and high thermal and electrical conductivity. The current review focuses on nanotechnology-enabled biosensors, their fundamentals, and architectural design. The review also expands the view on the materials used for fabricating biosensors and the probable applications of nanotechnology-enabled biosensors.

Nanotechnology-Assisted Biosensors for the Detection of Viral Nucleic Acids: An Overview.

The accurate and rapid diagnosis of viral diseases has garnered increasing attention in the field of biosensors. The development of highly sensitive, selective, and accessible biosensors is crucial for early disease detection and preventing mortality. However, developing biosensors optimized for viral disease diagnosis has several limitations, including the accurate detection of mutations. For decades, nanotechnology has been applied in numerous biological fields such as biosensors, bioelectronics, and regenerative medicine. Nanotechnology offers a promising strategy to address the current limitations of conventional viral nucleic acid-based biosensors. The implementation of nanotechnologies, such as functional nanomaterials, nanoplatform-fabrication techniques, and surface nanoengineering, to biosensors has not only improved the performance of biosensors but has also expanded the range of sensing targets. Therefore, a deep understanding of the combination of nanotechnologies and biosensors is required to prepare for sanitary emergencies such as the recent COVID-19 pandemic. In this review, we provide interdisciplinary information on nanotechnology-assisted biosensors. First, representative nanotechnologies for biosensors are discussed, after which this review summarizes various nanotechnology-assisted viral nucleic acid biosensors. Therefore, we expect that this review will provide a valuable basis for the development of novel viral nucleic acid biosensors.

Spotlight on mycobacterial lipid exploitation using nanotechnology for diagnosis, vaccines, and treatments.

Tuberculosis (TB), historically the most significant cause of human morbidity and mortality, has returned as the top infectious disease worldwide, under circumstances worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic's devastating effects on public health. Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causal agent, has been known of for more than a century, the development of tools to control it has been largely neglected. With the advancement of nanotechnology, the possibility of engineering tools at the nanoscale creates unique opportunities to exploit any molecular type. However, little attention has been paid to one of the major attributes of the pathogen, represented by the atypical coat and its abundant lipids. In this review, an overview of the lipids encountered in M. tuberculosis and interest in exploiting them for the development of TB control tools are presented. Then, the amalgamation of nanotechnology with mycobacterial lipids from both reported and future works are discussed.